HISTORY OF ANATOLIA, TURKEY
Stone Age
Paleolithic or Stone Age is represented by axes, tools,
artifacts made of stone, Silex and obsidian. This was a hunting and food-collecting
period when people of Anatolia lived in the caves and they had no idea about
agriculture. The best representatives of Stone Age are Yarimburgaz Cave near
Istanbul and certainly the great cave of Karain from Antalya Region.
Yarimburgaz Cave
The oldest evidence of earliest men in Turkey was discovered in
the west of Istanbul at Yarimburgaz Cave near Kucuk Cekmece Lagoon. The cave
with two sections was first excavated by Turkish scholars, Kilinc Kokten and
SEvket Aziz Kansu between 1963 and 1966. The research at Yarimburgaz continued
in the following years. Yarimburgaz Cave gave stunning results. Finds discovered
there represent the Paleolithic Period and date between 450.000 BC down to
130.000 BC.
Karain Cave
Another important Stone Age Cave, which gave amazing results, is
Karain. Located 27 kilometers in the north of Antalya, Karain was discovered by
Kilic Kokten during his research in the area between 1946 and 1958. Karain cave,
which could house nearly 80 people, has three main sections.
The Neolithic Age Polished Stone Age, Catalhoyuk
People of Anatolia witnessed a real revolution in 7000 BC. First
time, they started cultivating their land. They abandoned the caves and build
houses with most usual planning without windows and street among them. Some of
the most striking things about Neolithic Age were the start of agriculture, a
real revolution for hunting food collecting communities; the construction of
houses which replaced the caves of Stone Age people, the domestication of
animals, great use of volcanic glass, obsidian and silex for piercing and
cutting tools. Catalhoyuk, best representative of Neolithic Age revealed amazing
information about this period and the life of Neolithic men. Among the finds,
the wall paintings depicting religious ceremonies; the statues of Mother Goddess
of Anatolia, the most respected divinity of Anatolia; seals with designs, which
emphasize first time the idea of personal possession, draw our attention. The
pottery of Neolithic Age is simple and hand made.
The Calcolithic Age
This period, which took its name from copper and stone, is
mainly represented by Hacilar, a famous site excavated by British archeologist
David French. Hacilar excavations revealed that Calholithic Age people attained
the great skill of making very fine pottery using very abstract patterns, which
are the proto types of Kilim and rugs designs of to day.
Early Bronze Age
As we can easily understand from its name, early Bronze Age
people not only started using gold and other metals but also invented how to
make bronze. In 1930's a group of Turkish Archaeologist discovered 13 Royal
Tombs at Alacahoyuk, a renowned Hittite site. The artefacts brought to light
overshadowed the famous treasury discovered by Schiliman at Troy. These objects
in bronze and gold were the religious symbols used during the burial ceremonies
and rituals and put into these 13 Royal Tombs. These symbols, depicting various
sacred animals and sun discs, represented the divinities of Early Bronze Age.
Each showing case represented the finds discovered in one of these Royal Tombs.
Assyrian Colonies Period
At the end of Third Millennium Anatolia witnessed the arrival of
Assyrian Merchants from Mezapotimia. These merchants brought luxurious items
from Mesapotamia and took the gold, precious stones of Anatolia in return. They
established trade centres called " Karum" at different part of Anatolia. Thanks
to these merchants coming form Mesopotamia, the people of Anatolia first time
witnessed the use of cuneiform writing, which was used for trade agreement,
marriage contracts, and dept contracts.
HITTIES
At the end of Third Millennium, Anatolia witnessed the arrival
of warlike tribes who mixed with the local populations and soon established
small states. We see one of these states emerging as the first Hittite state
under the leadership of Anita who is considered as the first king of Hittites.
After ruling at Kanis/Kultepe, Anitta captured Hattusas, which became long
lasting capital of Hittites. Hittites soon became one of he greatest powers of
ancient world and rivaled with Mesopotamian and Egyptian Empires. Kades war,
which took place between Hittites and Egyptians near Biblical Antioch of Syria
ended with a peace treaty. According to this peace act, both countries would
help each other during the time of danger. Hittites, who were mentioned as" a
small tribe in the Bible" by the early scholars, are now known as one of the
greatest civilizations of the ancient world. The knowledge about Hittites
increased enormously thanks to efforts of many scholars who tried to solve the
mysterious of many rock carvings, open air shrines and temples in Anatolia and
the decipher of their language by Check linguist Hrozny who deciphered the
Hittite cuneiform using high German just proving that Hittite language was an
Endo European Language. After the discovery of thousands of cuneiform tablets at
great library at Hattusas, the scholars realized that they were dealing with
great empire.
PHRIGIAN The great Hittite Empire ended 12 century BC due to
attacks of warlike tribes known as “sea tribes" who came from east Europe and
after they crossed the Bosporus and Dardanelles, they put Anatolia into a Dark
Age for 300 years. After this Dark Age, we see one of these tribes emerging from
the darkness of the history and establishing a Kingdom, which was known as
Phrygian Kingdom in the history of Anatolia. The capital city of their kingdom
was Gordion, which is universally known because of the “Gordion Knot,” tied by
King Gordios and cut by Alexander the Great in 334 BC. The Phrygians, who ruled
in Anatolia nearly 150 years, put also their stamp. One of the legendary kings
of Frigid was Midas who became so famous because of his Golden Touch. A
monumental tomb known as "Midas' Tomb" was excavated by the scholars and
revealed great number of burial presents.
THE URARTIANS
The region of Mount Ararat witnessed another great kingdom,
Urartian Kingdom who ruled the region from 1000 BC to 700 BC. Urartians,
indigenous people of Anatolia chose Tusba or present day Van as their capital
city. The Assyrians coming from the south permanently menaced Urartians who were
masters of horse breeding and metalwork. Urartians built amazing water
irrigation system and fortresses.
After 1200 BC and the collapse of Hittite Empire, Anatolia
witnessed the arrival of Greek Colonist from west. Aeolians migrated to the
north of Izmir and gave their name to the region. Because of Ionian migrations,
the south of Izmir was called Ionia. As to further south, it witnessed the
arrival of warlike Dorians. As to inner parts of Anatolia, Anatolia saw risings
of few civilizations.
In Central Anatolia, Phrygians who were the warlike tribes
coming from eastern Europe established their own kingdom, Phrygian Kingdom which
reached to its most powerful period in the history during the time of king Midas
"known as Midas with the Golden touch".
In the west Anatolia, Lydian Kingdom became one of the most
powerful kingdoms. Lydians. After discovering the gold at Pactolus River at
Sardis and minting first coins in the history of kind, they started controlling
the economy of Anatolia. Their legendary King became so famous because of his
richness and became the subject of the famous proverb “to be as rich as Croisos"
He extended territories of his kingdom. After consulting to Oracle of Delphi, he
even marched towards east to put an end to Persian Empire. However, as it had
been mentioned by the oracle, he ruined an empire after crossing the Hallys
River. The horses of the famous Lydian Cavalry were scared and irritated by the
Persian Camels. This fact brought a real disaster to Lydians who retreated back
to Sardis and took shelter in the mighty walls of their capital city and started
to wait for the Persian arrival. Helas, Sardis was captured by the Persians who
took over whole Anatolia after the collapse of Lydian Kingdom. Anatolia was
divided into satrapies and was governed by the satraps who ruled those areas in
the name of Great Persian King. Persians were not satisfied with this great
success, the successors of Cyrus the Great, Darius and Xerxes crossed the sraits
of Bosphorus and Dardanelles and try to occupy whole Greece. Persianput even
Athenian Acropolis raised to ground in 480 BC. Persian victories continued till
their defeat in Platea and sea battle of Salamis. During this campaign, a woman
admiral leading the ships from Caria region of Anatolia draw attention.
Artemisia the Elder, she was the queen of the Caria region was one of the
advisors of Xerxes, king of Persia. Persian Campaign ended with the bitter
defeats of Persian armies and fleet ant Platea and Salamis. However, Persians
controlled Anatolia until arrival of Alexander the Great. During the Persian
rule of Anatolia, one of the satraps became known at the every single corner of
the ancient world because of his monumental tomb, Mausoleum, which became one of
the Seven Wonders of the World. His wife Artemisia the younger proved that she
was an excellent ruler and military figure. His sister Ada is recorded in the
history because of her meeting with Alexander the Great. One of the greatest
events, which changed the course of history, was the campaign of Alexander the
great. Starting his campaign in northern Greece, Alexander crossed the
Dardanelles in 334 BC; he defeated the Persians at Granikos and Issos and
liberated the cities from Persian Occupation. His campaign, which lasted nearly
ten years, changed the course of the history. After the death of Alexander,
Anatolia was shared among his generals. From time to time, it became also
battlefield among them. Pergamon Kingdom, which was established after the
campaign of Alexander the Great, became so important and controlled quite big
part Western and Central Anatolia. Last Kings of Pergamon Kindom were good
allies of the Romans. When last king of Pergamum died in 133 BC, he bequeathed
his kingdom to Romans. The capital of Pergamum became the seat of the Roman
Province of Asia. This was the beginning of glorious Roman centuries when many
beautiful structures were built in Anatolia. First Century AD, Christianity
stated taking its roots and started spreading in Anatolia. From time to time,
there were terrible persecutions of early Christians. Seven Letters were written
to Seven Churches of Asia (Western Turkey). Saint Peter came to Antioch on
Oranthes River. Saint John came to Ephesus and became head of the Church there.
It is also well-accepted fact, he brought Virgin Mary to Ephesus. Anatolia was
visited by Saint Paul during his successive three missionary trips. Paul visited
many cities in Anatolia and Greece. Amazing changes happened in the 4th century
AD. Emperor Constantine The Great decided to transfer the capital of the Roman
Empire to Byzantium, small city on the south west end of the Bosphorus Strait.
He rebuilt Byzantium as second Roma and embellished it with great monuments. In
325 AD, Constantine was leading the First Ecumenical counsel in Nicea.
Constantine also accepted the Christian Faith before he died ending the fact the
Roman Emperors were not Gods any more. Following Centuries, former Roman Empire
became into Byzantine Empire with its capital Constantinople on the banks of
Bosporus. Golden Age of Byzantine Empire came during the reign of Justinian the
Great who extended the boundaries of Byzantine Empire and built amazing
monuments all over the Empire. This fact gave him his title “Justinian the
Builder" Starting form 7th century, troublesome period for the empire started.
First Persians and then the Arabs started attacking the Byzantine land. Capture
of Constantinople was the main aim of Arabs for few centuries. They came from
the sea and land and aid siege at Constantinople. Starting from 9th century,
nomadic Turks migrating from Central Asia start arriving to Anatolia. However,
their decisive entry to Anatolia was 11th century. Alpaslan, the commander of
Seljuk armies defeated the Byzantine armies in the eastern Anatolia at Manzikert,
Malazgirt. Seljuk Turks chose Iznik as their first capital. This chocking event
made the Byzantine Empire alarmed and soon they claimed help from European
Powers. Starting from this Period, Anatolia witnessed the successive campaigns
of Crusaders and the fight among the Seljuk Turks, Byzantine armies and
Crusaders. Seljuk Sultanate ended with the Mongol attacks.
OTTOMAN EMPIRE
Beginning of the 14th
century witnessed the arrival Ottoman Turks under the leadership of Erturul Gazi
and following Osman who gave his name to the famous Ottoman Dynasty. Osman chose
the small town of Sogut as the capital of his Sultanate. After a short time,
Ottomans decided to capture one of the most important Byzantine cities in the
Marmara Region. Siege of Bursa lasted nearly 30 years. Osman Gazi died during
the siege of Bursa and the city was captured by his son and became the first
capital of Ottoman Empire. The new capital was embellished with very fine
mosques, theological schools. Soon, Ottoman Empire extended its territories both
in Anatolia and on Europe. The city of Hadrianopolis was captured by Ottomans
who made it their second capital. During these early centuries, Ottoman Turks
tried to capture Constantinople few times but they were not so succesfull.
Yildirim Bayezit built a fortress on the Asian side of Bosphorus and Mehmet II
built a new fort on Europe. Most major attempt to capture the capital of
Byzantine Empire happened during the reign of Mehmet II. He had great cannons
molded for the siege. He built forts at Dardanelles and Bosporus to prevent help
coming form the north and south.
Siege of Costantinople took seven months, the city fell 29 of
May in 1453, and Contantinople became the capital city of Ottoman Empire.
Successors of Mehmet II, Selim I and Suleyman the Magnificent managed to make
the Empire so vast. Soon Ottoman Empire extended on three continents and Ottoman
Sultans had the title of Caliphs.
Suleyman ruled 46 years. Ottoman Empire extended from the gates
of Vienna to the Persian Gulf and from South of Russia to North Africa. Golden
Age of Ottomans stopped after the death of Suleyman. First, there was stagnation
and then decline. Sultans were leading the armies any more during the battles.
State affairs were in the hands of harem women or some wise viziers. Ottoman
armies had defeats often. Many countries under the Ottoman rule started their
wars of independence against the Ottoman Empire. However, real disaster came
with the First World War. When the war broke out, some Ottoman generals who had
great respect and sympathy for Germany, they wanted to be on the German side.
Whole trouble started with two German Ships Goben and Breslau attacking the
French battleships in Mediterranean Sea. These two battleships, which were
followed by British battleships trying to catch them and came to Dardanelles and
asked for the permission to come to Sea of Marmara. After bitter arguments in
the Ottoman Parliament, permission was granted for these German Battleships.
Istanbul Government proclaimed that these two ships were purchased from Germany.
All the German soldiers put on Turkish Uniforms and Ottoman Fez. Moreover, a
week later, German admiral Sochon asked for permission to get to Black Sea for
kind military training. And shocking event came later on, Goben and Breslau
bombarded all the Russians harbors with oil and following day Russia declared
war to Ottoman Empire who found it self in the middle of First World War on the
German Side. Gallipoli Campaign The idea of forcing the Dardanelles came from
Winston Churchill who was the first Lord of the British Navy that time. So great
allied fleet tried to force through the Dardanelles in March 1915 but this great
naval attack failed. Therefore, the allies realized that they were not able to
pass through the Dardanelles without getting help from the land forces,
installed on the Gallipoli Peninsula and Asian side of Dardanelles. Landings
starting 25th of April on five beaches of Helles Point, at Anzac Cove and
Ariburnu area and Asian side continued whole summer months. Fierce battles
between the Allied forces and Turkish armies caused great casualties for both
sides. In August allied forced tried another major attack at Salt Lake and Sugla
Bay area. It also failed because of heroic defense of Turkish Soldiers. Towards
the end of the year, Gallipoli Campaign ended with a very successful retreat.
Turks lost the war besides Germany. Ottoman Empire was divided and shared among
the allies. French and British landed at southern Turkey, Levant Region. Italian
occupied Antalya and southern coast. Greek armies landed in Izmir and advanced
toward east. During this troublesome period, Mustafa Kemal Pasha, one of the
heroes of the Gallipoli Campaign left Istanbul to start a war against the
foreign powers occupying the country. He had meetings with the prominent figures
of the country at various major cities and started war of independence. He chose
Ankara as new capital of Turkey and he founded republic there. War of
Independence lasted 3 years. During these difficult times, Turkish people had to
fight against French, British, Italians, and Greeks. Greatest battles took place
between Greek and Turkish armies in 1922. Greek army defeated by Atatürk ,
retreated to Izmir, and left Anatolia.
During the following years, Atatürk had
his reforms:
Change of Garments
One of the major changes Atatürk made was to change the garments.
He abolished Fez and Veil. He introduced the hat, garments in European style,
and replaced the old ottoman style garments.
Change of Alphabet
Turks migrating from central Asia first came to Persia and
Arabic lands where they accepted the Muslim faith and stated using Arabic
Alphabet. Their language with central Asian origin was influenced by Arabic
language. Atatürk during his reforms, he changed the alphabet from Arabic to
Latin. He had two reasons for this incredible reform: First, He wanted his
country face to west and to have something in common with the western world.
Secondly, instated of Arabic, which is one of the most difficult languages in
the world, he adopted Latin alphabet. Therefore, Turkish people could learn how
to write and read more quickly. New alphabet was adopted in three months and it
was used all over the country.
Women Rights
Atatürk gave equal rights to Turkish women. In 1930s, they
obtained civil and political rights. For the favor of women, Atatürk also
changed the marriage system. He put and end to polygamy and religious system of
marriages. Therefore, men did not have any more four wives and they could not
divorce their wives so easily.
Political right granted to Turkish women made them elected as
parliament members even one of the Turkish women elected as Prime Minister of
Turkish Republic.
Change of Metric System. Atatürk replaced theological schools
with modern secular Universities.
Change of Code of Islam Atatürk changed the code of Islam with
Swiss Civilian and Italian penalty Codes.
